The impacts of pesticides on wildlife are extensive, and expose animals in urban, suburban, and rural areas to unnecessary risks. Beyond Pesticides defines "wildlife" as any organism that is not domesticated or used in a lab. This includes, but is not limited to, bees, birds, small mammals, fish, other aquatic organisms, and the biota within soil. Wildlife can be impacted by pesticides through their direct or indirect application, such as pesticide drift, secondary poisoning, runoff into local water bodies, or groundwater contamination. It is possible that some animals could be sprayed directly; others consume plants or prey that have been exposed to pesticides.
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Pesticide exposure can be linked to cancer, endocrine disruption, reproductive effects, neurotoxicity, kidney and liver damage, birth defects, and developmental changes in a wide range of species. Exposure to pesticides can also alter an organism’s behavior, impacting its ability to survive. In birds, for example, exposure to certain pesticides can impede singing ability, making it difficult to attract mates and reproduce. Pesticides can also affect birds' ability to care for offspring, causing their young to die. For bees, even “near-infinitesimal” levels of systemic pesticides result in sublethal effects, impacting mobility, feeding behaviors, and navigation.
Many deformations have been found after exposure to hormone-mimicking pesticides classified as endocrine disruptors. The impacts of these chemicals include hermaphroditic deformities in frogs, pseudo-hermaphrodite polar bears with penis-like stumps, panthers with atrophied testicles, and intersex fish in rivers throughout the U.S. Reproductive abnormalities have been observed in mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, and mollusks at exposure levels considered “safe” by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
Visit our Pesticide Gateway for more information about specific pesticides and their impacts on wildlife.
BiodiversityBiodiversity is the web of life, including the complex array of organisms that live in the environment, and their interactions and interdependencies. The functionality of biodiversity has deep significance for the nurturance and protection of the many individual species in the environment that are part of a greater whole. The impacts of pesticides on wildlife directly relate back to the functional aspects of biodiversity. The Earth’s rich biological heritage of species, communities, and ecosystems, which have evolved across millions of years, is rapidly deteriorating and in many instances irreversibly disappearing. The impacts of pesticides on wildlife is a major cause of concern in the deterioration of biodiversity.
It has been documented that certain pesticides, when introduced to aquatic environments, cause a decline in species diversity in aquatic organisms and predatory insects. In Europe, it has been found that a 42% loss in species richness occurs due to pesticide exposure, even when such exposures are at concentrations deemed environmentally safe by current legislation. Species richness of beneficial insects, such as bees, spiders, and beetles, has been found to be much higher on untreated or organic fields than on those treated with insecticides. Use of insecticides is a common occurrence in chemical-dependent agriculture.
Organic pest management sharply contrasts with a chemical-intensive approach in terms of its impact on the stability and resiliency of ecosystems. This divergence has enormous consequences for biodiversity and survival of wild species. Various land management practices have different effects on the web of life; recognition of this is crucial to maintaining the intricate balance and life-sustaining benefits of nature. Utilizing organic pest management rather than chemical-intensive controls is the most critical step in mitigating negative impacts of pesticides on wildlife and preserving the Earth’s remaining biodiversity.
Economic Impacts of Pesticides on Wildlife
The estimated economic costs of losses to biodiversity — for the value of pollinator services, “beneficial” predators, and birds and aquatic life — are continually changing as more complex and comprehensive studies are published. Earlier studies estimated that the cost of losses to biodiversity might amount to more than $1.1 billion annually. Now, we know that the loss of biodiversity can cost hundreds of billions of dollars annually. Natural pest control, a fundamental agricultural service, is estimated to be worth $100 billion annually. The role of soil biota in increasing agricultural productivity is worth $25 billion annually. By 2009, the value of dependent crops attributed to all insect pollination was estimated to be worth $15.12 billion annually.
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| Photo by Pierre Mineau, Canada |
Other economic impacts are related to the recreational use of wildlife. U.S. citizens already spend over $60 billion annually on hunting, fishing, and observing wildlife; much of the wildlife at the center of those activities depends on insects as a food source. Researchers have found that there is a steady decline in these insects due to pesticide exposure and an overall decline in biodiversity. It could be concluded then that, as beneficial insect populations decline, their ability to provide ecosystem services will also decline, impacting the available wildlife for hunting, fishing and observing. The demand for these recreational activities will stay constant while the supply (availability) will decline, causing an increase in dollars spent by U.S. citizens for each year.
Organic Systems Protect Wildlife
Two ways to combat the negative impacts of pesticides on wildlife are: to implement organic practices for your own lawn and garden, and to support organic agriculture, rather than on conventional agriculture, which relies on pesticide use. Beyond Pesticides supports organic agriculture as effecting good land stewardship and reducing wildlife's hazardous chemical exposures. The pesticide reform movement, citing pesticide problems associated with chemical agriculture — from groundwater contamination and runoff to drift — views organic as the solution to these serious environmental threats.
Conventional agriculture relies on a “pick and choose” method when it comes to pesticide use — only treating the symptoms of bad land management instead of acknowledging the deeper problems and attempting to understand agriculture as a whole system, including impacts on wildlife. Adopting a whole-systems approach, starting with management methods that “feed-the-soil,” and thus, promote healthy land from the ground up, would result in the greatest systemic benefit. Beyond Pesticides has long supported a “feed-the-soil” approach to agricultural management. This systems approach, which centers on managing soil health and on proper fertilization, eliminates synthetic fertilizers and focuses on building the soil food web and nurturing soil microorganisms. Experience demonstrates that this approach develops a soil environment rich in microbiology, which will produce resilient, productive land and benefit wildlife.
Healthy, resilient soil reduces any need for pesticides; terrain free from pesticides benefits wildlife and promotes natural predators, who can then do what they were meant to do in nature — provide natural controls. Organic systems save wildlife from the dangerous impacts of pesticides, encourage them to flourish, and restores the natural balance that is unable to exist in a conventional agricultural system.
One way that groups like Beyond Pesticides have sought to protect wildlife from the threat of pesticides is by holding federal agencies accountable to the Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973, which provides for the conservation of ecosystems on which threatened and endangered species of fish, wildlife, and plants depend. EPA has routinely disregarded the ESA’s requirement to consult with federal wildlife agencies on how to implement conservation measures to protect threatened and endangered species from pesticides. After years of gridlock, federal wildlife agencies, EPA, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) asked the National Academy of Sciences to study the issue and report on best ways to protect listed species (any species likely to become endangered or which is in danger of extinction) from the effects of toxic pesticides. The National Academy of Sciences report identified deficiencies for all the agencies involved in pesticide consultations, but singled out the EPA’s approach for its numerous analytical shortcomings. In response to the Academy’s recommendations, the agency announced several reforms, in the fall of 2013, designed to protect endangered species more effectively.
A stranded fish at Murray's Cauld near SelkirkThough the ESA is one of the most important laws for protecting wildlife, the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), Clean Water Act (CWA), and National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) are other significant laws meant to keep wildlife safe. FIFRA regulates pesticides to prevent “unreasonable adverse effects” to humans and the environment, including wildlife. The stated objective of the CWA is to “restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation’s waters . . . for the protection and propagation of fish, shellfish, and wildlife.”
Finally, NEPA requires that any federal government action that may impact wildlife and the environment must review and evaluate those impacts before any action is taken. Each of these laws can be utilized to protect wildlife by holding federal agencies accountable to them. For more detailed information about each law and how it protects wildlife, read "Preserving Biodiversity As If Life Depends on It," from our winter 2011–2012 Pesticides and You newsletter.
See below for current litigation regarding pesticides and wildlife:
EPA’s Expansion of 2,4-D Enlist Duo Challenged (April 2015)
EPA Violates FIFRA, ESA and APA (March 2013)
Evidence suggests that petroleum-derived polymers can impact marine organisms however, little is understood about whether biopolymers affect the behaviour and physiology of marine teleost fish. The aim of this research was to examine the potential effects of microplastics from a petroleum-derived polymer, (polyethylene, PE), and a biopolymer, (edible food coating EFC) on the escape performance, routine swimming, and aerobic metabolism of Forsterygion capito (the mottled triplefin). PE exposure negatively affected fish through longer latencies (∼25 % slower to respond), slower maximum speeds and higher responsiveness in escape performance compared to control fish. Furthermore, fish exposed to PE displayed slower mean speeds and reduced the distance travelled by ∼25 %. After an exhaustive challenge, PE-exposed fish showed higher excess post-exercise oxygen consumption during recovery, compared to control fish. By contrast, EFC exposure only negatively affected maximum speed during an escape. Directionality and mean speed in escape performance, metabolic rate and recovery time were unaffected by biopolymer exposure. With the ever-increasing number of microplastics in the ocean, a shift to biodegradable polymers may be beneficial to marine organisms due to the smaller effect found when compared to petroleum-derived polymers in this study. As a central tool for conservation, this study represents a significant advance to predict the impact of microplastics on wild fish populations.
Our laboratory study looked into how pesticides affect the foraminifera species Heterostegina depressa and their obligatory algal endosymbionts. We incubated the foraminifera separately with different types of pesticides at varying concentrations (1 %, 0.01 % and 0.0001 %); we included the insecticide Confidor© (active substance: imidacloprid), the fungicide Pronto©Plus (tebuconazole), and the herbicide Roundup© (glyphosate). Our evaluation focused on the symbiont's photosynthetically active area (PA), and the uptake of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and nitrogen (nitrate) to determine the vitality of the foraminifera. Our findings showed that even the lowest doses of the fungicide and herbicide caused irreparable damage to the foraminifera and their symbionts. While the insecticide only deactivated the symbionts (PA = 0) at the highest concentration (1 %), the fungicide, and herbicide caused complete deactivation even at the lowest levels provided (0.0001 %). The fungicide had the strongest toxic effect on the foraminiferal host regarding reduced isotope uptake. In conclusion, all pesticides had a negative impact on the holosymbiont, with the host showing varying degrees of sensitivity towards different types of pesticides.
Plastic pollution is now so widespread that microplastics are regularly detected in biological samples surveyed for their presence. Despite their pervasiveness, very little is known about the effects of microplastics on the health of terrestrial vertebrates. While emerging studies are showing that microplastics represent a potentially serious threat to animal health, data have been limited to in vivo studies on laboratory rodents that were force fed plastics. The extent to which these studies are representative of the conditions that animals and humans might actually experience in the real world is largely unknown. Here, we review 114 papers from the peer-reviewed literature in order to understand how the concentrations and types of microplastics being administered to rodents in lab studies compare to those found in terrestrial soils. From 73 in vivo lab studies, and 41 soil studies, we found that lab studies have heretofore fed rodents microplastics at concentrations that were hundreds of thousands of times greater than they would be exposed to in nature. Furthermore, health effects have been studied for only 20% of the microplastic polymers that are known to occur in soils. Plastic pollution is arguably one of the most pressing ecological and public health issues of our time, yet existing lab-based research on the health effects of terrestrial microplastics does not reflect the conditions that free-ranging vertebrates are actually experiencing. Going forward, performing more true-to-life research will be of the utmost importance to fully understand the impacts of microplastics and maintain the public’s faith in the scientific process.
Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) waste isomers from lindane production are the largest single POPs legacy, with an estimated 4.8 to 7.4 million tonnes of disposed waste. The largest part of this waste – 1.8 to 3 million tonnes – was disposed in Europe, where most producers were located. This paper provides a short overview of projects supported by the European Union (EU) to address this waste legacy and to implement the Stockholm Convention for this group of POPs with associated protection of soil, ecosystems and human health. We report here particularly on the results of a project financed by the EU called the “HCH in EU project”, which aimed to develop a systematic inventory of sites where HCH was handled and potentially resulted in contamination. The compiled information provide guidance for competent authorities to further assess their national HCH inventory and to further develop a strategy to address this large POP legacy in future. The systematic inventory revealed that there were at least 299 sites where HCH was handled. These sites include 54 former production sites, 76 pesticide processing plants that used lindane, 59 uncontrolled HCH waste isomer deposits, 29 landfills with HCH waste, 34 former or current storage sites for stocks of obsolete pesticides including technical HCH or lindane, and 16 HCH treatment or disposal sites. Additionally, at 31 of the sites lindane/technical HCH was used in applications with significant risk of soil pollution, such as wood treatment. The number of sites in this latter category is likely higher and will need further assessment. In addition to this inventory, the “HCH in EU project” produced detailed country reports, a guidance document for how to find potentially HCH-impacted sites, and a strategy document for implementing the sustainable management of these sites EU-wide, with proposed actions at the EU, country, and site level. Furthermore, the project has facilitated information exchange and – together with other related EU projects – has led to sharing information and best practices among member states and to establishing a network of authorities and other stakeholders working on the lindane/HCH waste legacy. This collaboration will facilitate a more systematic and better coordinated process to further assess, secure, and remediate the large HCH waste legacy and reduce and control lindane/HCH releases in the EU and possibly beyond. Such a coordinated effort and exchange of information for inventorying and managing contaminated sites might also be useful for other POPs such as PFOS/PFOA or dioxins.
Glyphosate-based herbicides (GBHs) have become the leading agricultural herbicides used globally since the development of genetically engineered herbicide-tolerant crops. This paper investigates whether GBHs are consistent with or supportive of sustainable agriculture. Agricultural sustainability is defined by generally agreed upon goals: (1) promoting agroecology; (2) protecting soils and the Earth’s natural resources; (3) protecting biodiversity; and (4) enhancing the quality of life and health of farmers, farm workers, and society. Through an in-depth examination of the scholarly literature, the paper explores whether the scientific studies of GBHs are consistent with their sustainable applications in agriculture in the areas of human health, non-tillage agriculture, soil quality, aquatic ecosystems and beneficial, non-target species. Based on the four generally agreed upon goals listed above for agricultural sustainability, the paper finds that GBHs are not consistent with sustainability goals.
This review provides an overview of the current knowledge addressing the interactions between micro(nano)plastics (MNPs) and pharmaceuticals or pesticides, highlights the main findings, and outlines research perspectives for future investigations. The available studies demonstrated that MNPs can act as pollutant carriers. The reviewed literature reveals that MNPs influence the toxicity of pharmaceuticals and pesticides in various environmental compartments, modulating the toxicity of pharmaceuticals and pesticides, either through antagonistic or synergistic interactions. MNPs have been shown to mostly confer protective effects against the toxicity of antibiotics, while exacerbating the toxic effects of certain pesticides. To ensure a more comprehensive understanding of the interactions between MNPs and pharmaceuticals/pesticides, future research should focus on several key aspects that include more environmentally relevant scenarios (e.g., concentrations, long-term exposures), elucidation of the underlying mechanisms of action at molecular and cellular levels,addressing effects on different species and also considering climate change scenarios.
Boscalid is a succinate dehydrogenase inhibitor fungicide and is frequently detected in surface water. Due to the frequent detection of boscalid, we evaluated its impact on the reproduction of adult zebrafish following a 21 d exposure to 0, 0.01, 0.1, and 1.0 mg/L. Following exposure to boscalid, the fertility of female zebrafish and fertilization rate of spawning eggs were reduced in a concentration-dependent manner up to a respective 87% and 20% in the highest concentration. A significant 16% reduction in the percentage of late vitellogenic oocytes was noted in ovaries, and a significant 74% reduction in the percentage of spermatids in testis was also observed after treatment with 1.0 mg/L. 17β-Estradiol (E2) concentrations decreased significantly in females (34% decrease) but significantly increased in males (15% increase) following 1.0 mg/L boscalid treatment. The expression of genes (such as era, er2b, cyp19a, and cyp19b) related to the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad-liver (HPGL) axis was significantly altered and positively correlated with E2 concentrations in female and male zebrafish (p < 0.05). Molecular docking results revealed that the binding modes between boscalid and target proteins (ER and CYP19) of zebrafish were similar to that of the reference compounds and the target proteins. The binding energies indicate that boscalid may have a weak estrogen-like binding effect or CYP19 inhibition, potentially altering the HPGL axis, thereby reducing E2 concentrations and fecundity in females. In contrast, boscalid caused significant induction of E2 steroidogenesis and subsequent feminization of gonads in males, indicating gender-specific adverse outcome pathways.
Neonicotinoids are neurotoxic insecticides widely used as seed treatments, but little is known of their effects on migrating birds that forage in agricultural areas. We tracked the migratory movements of imidacloprid-exposed songbirds at a landscape scale using a combination of experimental dosing and automated radio telemetry. Ingestion of field-realistic quantities of imidacloprid (1.2 or 3.9 milligrams per kilogram body mass) by white-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys) during migratory stopover caused a rapid reduction in food consumption, mass, and fat and significantly affected their probability of departure. Birds in the high-dose treatment stayed a median of 3.5 days longer at the site of capture after exposure as compared with controls, likely to regain fuel stores or recover from intoxication. Migration delays can carry over to affect survival and reproduction; thus, these results confirm a link between sublethal pesticide exposure and adverse outcomes for migratory bird populations.
Endocrine disrupting chemicals are a group of pollutants that can affect the endocrine system and lead to diseases and dysfunctions across the lifespan of organisms. They are omnipresent. They are in the air we breathe, in the food we eat and in the water we drink. They can be found in our everyday lives through personal care products, household cleaning products, furniture and in children’s toys. Every year, hundreds of new chemicals are produced and released onto the market without being tested, and they reach our bodies through everyday products. Permanent exposure to those chemicals may intensify or even become the main cause for the development of diseases such as type 2 diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular diseases and certain types of cancer. In recent years, legislation and regulations have been implemented, which aim to control the release of potentially adverse endocrine disrupting chemicals, often invoking the precautionary principle. The objective of this review is to provide an overview of research on environmental aspects of endocrine disrupting chemicals and their effects on human health, based on evidence from animal and human studies. Emphasis is given to three ubiquitous and persistent groups of chemicals, polychlorinated biphenyls, polybrominated diphenyl ethers and organochlorine pesticides, and on two non-persistent, but ubiquitous, bisphenol A and phthalates. Some selected historical cases are also presented and successful cases of regulation and legislation described. These led to a decrease in exposure and consequent minimization of the effects of these compounds. Recommendations from experts on this field, World Health Organization, scientific reports and from the Endocrine Society are included.
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